OCEAN ACIDIFICATION
Introduction
Carbon dioxide emissions from the use of fossil fuels have been shown to be reason in the increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and while that gets a lot of attention nationally, another area where carbon dioxide has had increased impact is in our oceans. With increased carbon dioxide emissions, the oceans are undergoing acidification from the increase of dissolved carbon dioxide into the oceans. With the oceans becoming more acidified, the aquatic life will be, and currently is, greatly impacted resulting in an impact on our lives.
​
Fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas, are used as a fuel source all over the globe. The combustion of these fossil fuels, and impurities that include nitrides and sulfides, results in carbon dioxide and water along with any other amount of gasses such as nitrogen oxides or sulphur oxides as products which are bad for the environment (Equation 1). All of these gases that are formed from the combustion of fossil fuels are greenhouse gases that get trapped in our atmosphere. These greenhouse gases affect the warming of the Earth as well as the ability to block harmful UV rays from the sun.
With the continual use of combustion of fossil fuels for heating, electricity, and transportation, the amount of carbon dioxide that is being released into the atmosphere is continuing to increase. With the increase concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, some of that carbon dioxide gets absorbed into the oceans (Figure 1).
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
Figure 1. Simple diagram of the carbon dioxide cycle in oceans
Once in the oceans, the carbon dioxide reacts with the water to form carbonic acid. Carbonic acid is a diprotic acid which means that it is able to dissociate twice with the loss of hydrogen ions due to the change in pH of the system. The carbonic acid is able to disassociate and form bicarbonate ions, and a hydrogen ion, and then again dissociate to form carbonate ions and another hydrogen ion (Equation 2) with the overall equation of the system shown in Equation 3. With the increase in the hydrogen ion concentration, the pH of the water decreases which leads to the acidification of our oceans.
The amount of pH in a system is determined by the concentration of hydrogen ions on a negative log scale (Equation 4). The lower the pH value, the more acidic there is of a system.
With an increased concentration of the hydrogen ions in the oceans from the increased amounts of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere being dissolved into the oceans, multiple issues are occurring in our oceans. Some of these issues include, the bleaching of coral reefs, the loss of other aquatic plant life, the inability for zooplankton to form their shells, and potentially a rapid decrease in fish population.
​
Effects of Ocean Acidification on Marine Organisms
​
Often resources left in the common space are the greatest victims of climate change, the ocean is one of those victims. The escalated emissions discussed in previous emissions have resulted in a monumental change of the ecosystems chemistry. This change has been felt by almost all marine organisms and those who depend on them. Coral reefs are the ecosystem most greatly affected by ocean acidification.
​
The bleaching of coral reefs is a growing epidemic that can be directly linked to climate change. Coral operates in a symbiotic relationship with a single celled species of algae known as zooxanthellae. The algae photosynthesis provided excess sugars to the coral as food while the coral provides protection for the algae. However, since the late 1800s documented cases of coral bleaching have been studied. When the coral is placed under stressful conditions, such as changes in temperature, light, salinity, or chemistry, a break down in the symbiosis of the algae and host coral can occur. The zooxanthellae loss causes the coral to loose its color and primary food source. This phenomenon has only accelerated with entire sections of once major coral reefs being wiped out by changes to ocean water properties, side effects of climate change.
Policy Innovations
Developing solutions for the ocean is not an easy task due to its transiency, and countless benefactors, however, numerous countries and governmental bodies, globally, are beginning to create headway on the possible solutions for the human induced event of ocean acidification. Within each policy, or protocol there remain solid ideas and structures on how to alleviate the cause and effect of ocean acidification, yet remain unexplored.
​
Figure 2. Diagram of complications from increased atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations
​
Australia’s Ocean Policy
Australia has been known as a nation to partake in leading environmental trends, and shows to be highly concerned with conserving and protecting ecosystems. As Australia’s surrounding waters remain home to what was once the largest and most flourishing coral reef on planet Earth, their efforts must remain continuously changing and adapting to the status of biodiversities health in their oceans coasts. Since, the health of the Great Barrier Reef has been frequently researched as decreasing, and events such as coral bleaching are more rapidly sweeping these ecosystems, Australia is left with serious management struggles ahead of them. To assess possible solutions to their dying ecosystems the country created what is known as Australia’s Ocean Policy. Australian policy predominantly identifies that coastal pollution is a major contribution to the contamination (including acidification) within their coastal areas. (AOP, pg. 21) From this idea they move to the necessary regulations and shifts in emissions and waste production that industries are required to move to in order to retain less carbon emissions, thus less carbon sequestration. The AOP also strongly identifies the importance of their Regional Marine Plans (RMP) to promote health and integrity for large ecosystems, as well as identifying individual locations needs. (AOP, pg. 21 When selecting their RMP’s an entire marine bioregion was analyzed, and thus formulated using ecosystem based management approaches. Australia’s policy strains that integrated policy approaches have been identified as the solution to managing natural resource conflicts within the ocean. (Vince, pg. 162) Australia has created a policy and project that serves with great intentions, however, the lack of concrete vision, and implementation created a policy that up to this point has failed.
​
First, AOP encountered developmental issues due to their inability to keep policy makers in their intended position; there was found to be a large amount of un-organization as those intended to create policy were also installing the formation of the office life. (Vince, pg. 164) Australia’s Ocean Policy also lacked it’s most important fundamental: integration. Nationwide cooperation was faulted due to the inability to gain full scale integration, the layering process of new policy and institutions that was designed to keep sectors separate was ineffective, and the institution themselves did not have the integration capacity required for successful implementation. (Vince, pg. 164 ) As this project’s entire structure relies on national cooperation, the inability to successful amalgamate creates inconsistencies with the overall success of alleviating ocean acidification.
​
Rio Ocean Declaration
​
The Rio Ocean Declaration was initiated in 2012 at the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development. This organization “calls for immediate action to meet the sustainable development goals for oceans, coasts, and small island developing states.” (Rio Ocean Declaration, pg.1) The original council that devised this Declaration identify the the oceans presence as an essential pillar for sustaining life on Earth, and establish the critical impact this ecosystem alleviates on the social, economic, and environmental stability that humans experience. The initial conference created seven steps that impose immediate action towards achieving sustainable development goals related towards ocean restoration and protection. The seven goals include, 1. Integrated ocean governance: increase successful ecosystem based management/ocean and coastal management, 2. Climate and oceans: develop an approach to addressing the overlapping issues of climate change, oceans, and security, 3. Development of marine protected areas: utilizing integrated ocean governance, implement ecosystem based approaches for ensuring conservation and the sustainable use of marine biology, 4. Enhancing fisheries for food security, social and economic benefits, 5. Enhance the capability of developing countries to manage climate change and their marine resources, 6. Controlling all sources of marine pollution: mitigate marine pollution. Including persistent organic pollutants, heavy metals, and nitrogen-based compounds. (Rio Ocean Declaration, pg. 4) Within the original documentation developed after the conference their entails more detailed plans of implementation, and trans-national cooperation. Much like the other organizations this policy integration relies on the cooperation of all countries and their populations; this framework specifically aims towards assisting developing countries in their abilities to manage their current environmental crisis’. Although, this operation shows to have great promise in creating change towards the current ocean acidification issues, it lacks accountability, and creates no reprimands for those who shy away from completing the assigned task. It also places great importance on changing the production habits of developing countries when in fact it is the “super power” nations driving ocean acidification levels leaving the smaller coastal countries to experience the effects.
​
​
The London Protocol is one entity that has been tasked with reversing anthropogenic effects on marine life. It is unique in the fact that it is one of few agreements that tries to directly address ocean acidification (United Nations, 14.3). It does so by regulating the practices of carbon capture and sequestration as well as ocean fertilization for the purpose of studying their effects on the ocean. Carbon capture and sequestration may not directly deal with ocean acidification, however reducing the amount of emissions entering the atmosphere does slow ocean acidification as carbon dioxide entering the atmosphere is the root cause of OA. Ocean fertilization under the London Protocol is prohibited beyond scientific research because the large scale effects are unknown and potentially harmful (IUNC). While the stated methods have been deemed controversial and ineffective by some, they present a standard for regulating other types of scientific research; the London Protocol cannot enforce laws it has a regulatory format that could aid in creating ocean acidification laws. One could use the London Convention as an outline for environmental law regarding the regulation of other potentially helpful practices like using limestone as calcium carbonate in the oceans to raise the pH of the oceans. For what this treaty was made for, it works very well. However, if it was expanded to include more aspects of ocean acidification then it can be improved.
​
The California Ocean Acidification Action Plan
​
The California Ocean Acidification Action Plan is a relatively new process so much of what they are doing is still in the planning phase, however the plan creates a good outline for what policy on ocean acidification could include. Most of their action plan is based around gathering scientific research to better understand how to fight rising ocean acidity because little research done on this problem. One of the aspects they are focused on is determining the largest contributing factor to to the rising acidity in their coastal waters. They have narrowed it down to nutrient pollution, air pollution, and freshwater runoff. As carbon emissions are the source of ocean acidification, one goal of this action plan is to reduce carbon emissions to 40% below the levels in 1990 by 2030. Something it has already done to work towards this goal is obtain funding for carbon sequestration along the coast to help reduce the amount of carbon dioxide entering the ocean. Another action it is taking is testing out aquafarms to attempt to store carbon in organisms like seagrass, salt marshes, and kelp. Another objective of this plan is to disseminate information to the Californian public about ocean acidification because it is not well known outside of the science community. The final goal is to expand the vision presented in this plan to the entire west coast and Mexico, as those are the areas affecting California’s coastal water the most, and eventually expand it internationally. It is hard to say if this plan is successful because it is so new. That being said, they have made headway towards some of their goals and their plan is comprehensive and constructed well; in this way I would call this a success.
Assessment
Carbon Dioxide Experiment in Oceanic Communities
​
A holistic understanding of the effects of acidification on marine ecosystems is minimal. While numerous observational studies on oceanic systems across the globe have been conducted, experimental field evidence has been limited and inconclusive. Free Ocean carbon dioxide Enrichment (FOCE) experiments provide an analysis of the effects of ocean acidification that add to single species studies. Similar lab studies provide quantitative data however cannot provide information about the interactions between the various processes that ocean acidification impact within a community. The experimental set up allows for more natural settings than those created in laboratory conditions. The system consists of a series of enclosures set up on the ocean floor. A filtration system allows for water to easily enter and exit the system while maintaining pH and restricting movement of organisms into and out of the study area. Control enclosures simply monitored communal reactions under current conditions while experimental enclosures allowed for pH and carbon dioxide manipulation, meant to mimic predicted levels. Experimental cells are injected with a supply of liquid or gas carbon dioxide as water is drawn into the system to generate acidic conditions. While FOCE provides potentially comparative data it has limitations common to field studies of this magnitude. Including alteration to light fields, changes in water flow or suspended sediment, and modification to scale dependent processes due to enclosure size (Stark, pg 92). The idea of a FOCE experiment is simply a framework for scientists to follow and modifications need to made based on location. For example gaseous carbon dioxide injection at depths of 350-550 m and low temperatures are unable to mix at necessary rates. The effectiveness of FOCE experiments is not yet conclusive however results thus far have been revealing trends regarding resilience to ocean acidification in corals and coralline algae, changes in behavior in urchins, seagrass production and buffering of ocean acidification for sensitive calcifiers.
​
Carbon Dioxide Reduction with Use of Limestone
​
Calculated research done by L. D. D. Harvey at the University of Toronto's geography department looked more into the idea of using limestone as calcium carbonate in the oceans to raise the pH of the oceans. The idea came from agricultural practices where they use calcium carbonate on crop fields as an additive to compact the acidification of the soil from the excessive use of nitrogen based fertilizers. The calculations looked at the depth of the ocean where the calcium carbonate would dissolve as well as the velocity of the ocean currents to see maximum impact on the pH levels. This idea was deemed to not really be a good solution due to the calculations showing that even at best case scenarios it would still take hundreds of years to work. The author recommends that the best way to combat acidification of the oceans is to curb carbon dioxide emissions.
​
Carbon Dioxide Reduction Science
​
With the idea of reducing the acidification of oceans being unrealistic due to just the vast size of the ocean, most policies look more into reducing the amount of carbon dioxide. Other than just completely stopping carbon dioxide emissions, there are other ways to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide with the use of a protonated catalysis to convert it into carbon monoxide and water (Equation 5).
This process could potentially use carbon dioxide emissions to produce carbon monoxide which then potentially can be converted into a fuel like ethanol. This process not only helps reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and also helps in other areas such as alternative fuel sources.
​
Increase Carbon Sequesters
​
Coastal ecosystems of mangroves and marshes provide numerous benefits and services that are essential to coastlines for adoption due to climate change, including protection from storms and rising sea levels, prevention of shoreline erosion, improved water quality, commercially favorable fisheries, and more biodiversity. Scientists have robust methods to measure blue carbon; carbon captured by the world’s ocean and ecosystems, stored in the green biomass and soils of coastal ecosystems and the methods to estimate the loss of carbon from these systems if degraded. These ecosystems sequester and store significant amounts of coastal blue carbon from the atmosphere and the ocean and have an important role in mitigating climate change. The rates of annual carbon sequestration rate for mangroves and marshes are two to four times greater than the global rates in mature tropical forests, (Murray, 6). These ecosystems filter pollutants from land runoff and maintain water quality in these coastal areas. Seagrasses are submerged flowering plants that are found in these ecosystems along the coastlines of every continent but Antartica. The seagrasses sequester approximately 10% of the carbon in the coastline sediment annually. But seagrasses are one of the world’s most threatened ecosystems; seagrasses have an annual global loss of 1.5% and about 29% of Earth’s seagrass ecosystems have been lost, (Murray, 10). It is important to have policy that protects these areas from the threats of deforestation and dredging, while protecting these ecosystems from poor land use which would result in poor water quality. Coastal management strategies for conserving and restoring coastal ecosystems should be developed and implemented and continued. If these areas are not protected the large storages of carbon in the soils will be exposed and released as carbon dioxide in the ocean or atmosphere.
​
Create R&D Sectors and Environmental Laws to Govern Them
​
It is important to develop research sectors because education and outreach efforts are vital to public understanding of environmental and socioeconomic impacts of ocean acidification. It is important to enhance the public literacy on ocean acidification by creating education opportunities that engage stakeholders both locally and internationally. Ocean acidification is a high priority with local effects but from global causes. Therefore, the education of ocean acidification should have local, national and international components. Working both locally and nationally will help build support for US and international ocean acidification programs. The US should have a significant interest in assisting in understanding and finding a response to ocean acidification. Just because the research is only on coastal regions the research and education should engage the broader public, as well as policymakers at local, state and national levels. It is important to have adequate stakeholder involvement in the research and development process, because it will lead to better long-term success of the ecosystem region. These stakeholders are either being impacted by ocean acidification, can help mitigate it or can adapt the effect of it and populations that live within the region. Both local and international interaction should aid education and research efforts while creating partnerships that will lead to goals of climate change being more easily attained. Such research and education will lead to a more educated public on ocean acidification and how socioeconomic choices impact the local and global climate and the threats climate change pose.
One of the most important aspects in assuring the health of the ocean is preventing unregulated experimental practices that could worsen the situation. While scientific research is needed in order to find a solution to prevent and reverse ocean acidification, it is unsafe to do so on a large scale without a sufficient body of research to assure that the harm of such experiments will not exceed the benefits. The London Protocol is a treaty that prohibits dumping waste into the ocean unless given permission. It has more of a “precautionary approach” but it is a good model for what those laws and regulations could look like if it was extended to include all anthropogenic alterations of our seas, especially in relation to ocean acidification. This also presents an opportunity for governments to fund and have jurisdiction over research and development sectors that would focus on finding solutions for ocean acidification. The United States is one of the many countries apart of this treaty; because there is already a precedent for this type of law in the U.S. it is probable that this proposal would be passed. This approach would implement laws restricting practices that are harmful to marine life and newfound ocean acidification solutions until they are determined to be safe. This would likely be a bipartisan law, because there is a precedent for it and it will only affect the scientists studying ocean acidification. The only part of this proposal that could pose opposition is the funding for the research and development.
Begin developing an intergovernmental organization assigned towards ensuring global cooperation on ocean issues like acidification
​
All of the policies mentioned above share one major requirement, international cooperation. As the ocean is one large and transient body of water, the ability for only one state to achieve the necessary measures to reducing ocean acidification, is nearly impossible. As we saw in Australia’s Ocean Policy, the Rio Ocean Declaration, the California Action Plan, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, and the London Convention & Protocol, the requirement for transnational collaboration is a necessity. To ensure this type of union is formed, and triumphant, in resolving acidification levels rising in the ocean, an intergovernmental organization should be developed and tasked to maintain international ocean acidification restoration and protection efforts. The creation of a panel assigned towards ensuring international cooperation is essential for achieving measurable shifts in the amount of carbon dioxide sequestered within the ocean. This intergovernmental organization should have representation similar to the United Nations, and requires as much imperativeness as the agenda of establishing international peace. Obviously this would not be an easy task as the formation of any unified international body requires time and money. We understand this type of policy implementation would be geared predominantly towards the democratic parties favor, however, we view a benefit is awaiting for both parties. As the ocean produces a majority of the world’s economic stability, it is imperative that maintaining the structure of that financial driver is healthy and flourishing. It should also be recognized as one of the most diverse and unexplored ecosystems in the entire world, and inferring that planning for the repercussions of the oceans complete demise is highly impossible. The formation of a governmental organization with cooperation from all countries should pose as feasible to both political parties of the United States due to its serious threat to current humanity.
​
The chemistry of the ocean is changing at an unprecedented rate due to anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions, which is at a rate higher than any known rate in the past. Unless anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions are substantially reduced, or atmospheric carbon dioxide is controlled by other mean, the pH of the oceans will continue on its current path. Ocean acidification has a vast variety of impacts on many marine organisms and ecosystems. Even though the consequences are still unknown there is the risk that these changes will threaten the livelihood of coral reef, fisheries and other resources that provide value. We need a plan that addresses the goals and objectives of ocean acidification along with how these goals will be evaluated. We need integration and coordination from everyone from a local to a national level. It is also important that once the research is completed it is possible to transition the research into a functioning process. If we all collectively as a whole coordinate our efforts with existing and developing programs and use community input a strategic bipartisan plan to combat ocean acidification is possible. The bipartisan support would show how leaders on both side of the spectrum recognize the importance of preparing and educating their communities on the impacts of ocean acidification.
Bibliography (sources not linked above)
Murray, Brain. "Green Payments for Blue Carbon." Economic Incentives for Protecting Coastal Habitats, April 2011.
